the russo-japanese war
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Thus, though for eighteen months a bitter and mighty conflict was waged between two great military nations; though battles, almost unexampled as regards the number of troops engaged and the intensity of artillery fire, were fought -- yet all these bloody encounters and these gigantic operations were carried on, not on the territories of the belligerent states, but within the boundaries of a neutral power! Furthermore, it should be noted that Chinese neutrality had been solemnly guaranteed at the opening of the campaign by both of the belligerents, as well as by the great neutral powers. Never before, in the history of the civilized world, has a war been conducted under such conditions."-- Theodore de Martens, Russian Legal Advisor at the Peace Conference, "The Portsmouth Peace Conference," The North American Review, November 1905.
Preparations for War
For all of its bluster in refusing to settle the problems peacefully, Russia was unprepared for war. Although its army was larger than Japan's, the main Russian strength was in Europe, 12,000 miles away from the Pacific. Russia, fearing a European war or a revolution, kept the best troops in the west. Its far eastern forces were poorly trained and equipped. Although Russia was building up its forces in Manchuria, alarming the Japanese, there was little preparedness for battle. While negotiating with Russia, Japan had planned for war for several years and both its fleet and army were ready. Beginning Battles The hostilities began with two Japanese attacks, the most shocking being the assault on the Russian fleet off Port Arthur on February 8, 1904. At about the same time the Japanese sent troops ashore at Chemulpo, Korea, a neutral port. Meeting little opposition at the landing, the Japanese soon controlled Korea, and then advanced up the peninsula to confront the Russians at the Yalu River that separated Korea from Manchuria. The Japanese goal was to drive the Russian army out of Manchuria. By the end of May the Russians were defeated at the Yalu River, while most of their Far Eastern fleet was blockaded at Port Arthur. Japan remained wary of the European nations and had only to look at China to see what might happen in the future. Large in land mass and population, China was no match for the military forces of Europe, who dominated China with treaty ports and commercial spheres of influence and eventually occupied Beijing during the Boxer Rebellion. Japan was determined not to suffer the same fate. Within decades of Perry's visit, Japan transformed itself into a modern industrialized nation capable of resisting European colonial aspirations. Japan restored the emperor Meiji, rapidly developed a massive industrial capability, and built a well-equipped modern military force. |
Where the battles were fought.
General Oyama and his forces stopped the Russian advance in Manchuria. Harper's Weekly.
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Port Arthur
The Japanese landed another army just north of Port Arthur and again defeated the Russians at Nanshan on May 26, 1904, effectively cutting off Port Arthur from any reinforcements. General Nogi moved his army south to begin costly attacks on Port Arthur. Liao-Yang The Russians retreated northward to their stronghold at Liao-Yang, where from August 26 until September 4, the armies fought one of the largest battles of modern times prior to World War I. Over 350,000 men battled, with nearly 40,000 killed and wounded. The Japanese were victorious again and the Russians were driven from the Liaotung peninsula, isolating besieged Port Arthur at its tip. |
Japanese block print
Japanese block print of Liao-Yang battle action.
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 Makarov's Flagship Petropavlovsk was destroyed by a mine off Port Arthur
Death of Makarov The Russian fleet made several attempts to break out of the Japanese blockade of Port Arthur. One of those efforts was on April 13 led by Admiral Stepan Osipovich Makarov, recognized as a preeminent naval strategist. With smaller vessels alongside, four battleships, including Makarov's flagship Petropavlovsk, left the harbor of Port Arthur. When Japanese Admiral Togo's fleet appeared out of the mist, the Russians turned back to the protection of the Port Arthur forts. Suddenly mammoth explosions rocked the flagship (above). It apparently hit a floating mine and sank within a minute, killing 635 officers and men, including Makarov. The explosion stunned Togo and when he learned of Makarov's death, he ordered his ships' flags flown at half-mast out of respect for the Russian admiral; in Tokyo funeral processions paid further tribute. For the Russians, the loss of the great Makarov ended any real hope for the survival of Port Arthur’s fleet since they lacked naval leadership.  Russian General Kuropatkin and his artillery officers in Manchuria. Harper's Weekly.
Manchurian Battles In the north the Russian army continued to withdraw from Liao-Yang toward Mukden where reinforcements were finally arriving. Since the Russians were planning to send the Baltic fleet around the world to reach Port Arthur, it was essential to keep pressure on the Japanese to prevent Port Arthur from falling. Kuropatkin's Counter-attack In October 1904, General Kuropatkin began a counter-offensive south of Mukden at the Sha Ho River. The bloody battle raged for ten days but ended in a draw with both sides exhausted. This signaled the end of Russia's attempts to reinforce Port Arthur. |
Japanese wood block print honors Admiral Makarov.
Japanese soldiers form a human pyramid to assault a Port Arthur fort. Atop the wall is Russian Captain Lebedief, who killed many Japanese during three assaults, then was himself killed by a shell blast. l'Illustration.
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The Japanese fleet in the harbor of Port Arthur after the siege. C. B. Doleac collection.
Japanese block print of Port Arthur action.
Port Arthur Falls
After the battle of Nanshan, the Japanese began a long siege of Port Arthur that was marked by several very costly assaults. They eventually gained the high ground around the port and began a heavy artillery barrage on the city and sunk most of the fleet in the harbor. General Stössel, Port Arthur's Russian commander, surrendered to the Japanese on January 1, 1905, without consulting his officers and despite several months' provisions and large supplies of ammunition remaining. Mukden After the fall of Port Arthur, General Nogi's army moved north to join the other Japanese armies at Mukden, where in March, Japan again was victorious. Some 560,000 troops fought a two-month battle, the largest confrontation of the war. Here Japan had 70,000 casualties and the Russians lost 89,000. The Russian army, defeated but still intact, retreated north toward Harbin; the Japanese were too exhausted to pursue and destroy the Russian army. (Left) As Japan tightened the siege of Port Arthur, the Russian Bear diminished in size and shape as the Japanese mouse grew into a giant. (Right) Japanese women view a talisman for a soldier heading for the front. Harper's Weekly. |
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The battle of Mukden, the largest of the war, resulted in another Japanese victory and drove the Russians from Manchuria. C. B. Doleac collection
Caring for the Wounded
Despite the ferocious battles and the animosities such fighting might arouse between the two forces, reporters observed the relatively humane treatment afforded the Russian wounded and captured soldiers by the Japanese. Proper medical care was extended to all the wounded Russians. During the negotiations, one of the points made by the Japanese concerned the great expense incurred caring for the more than 100,000 Russian prisoners.
Despite the ferocious battles and the animosities such fighting might arouse between the two forces, reporters observed the relatively humane treatment afforded the Russian wounded and captured soldiers by the Japanese. Proper medical care was extended to all the wounded Russians. During the negotiations, one of the points made by the Japanese concerned the great expense incurred caring for the more than 100,000 Russian prisoners.
Propaganda
While the fierce fighting continued in Manchuria, both the Russians and Japanese attempted to rally support for their cause on the home front. Each side used newspaper articles and illustrations to promote their successes. Especially effective were hundreds of Japanese wood block prints that depicted war scenes and, in particular, various aspects of battles. While the prints below tend to glorify Japanese actions, some pay tribute to the courage of the Russians.
While the fierce fighting continued in Manchuria, both the Russians and Japanese attempted to rally support for their cause on the home front. Each side used newspaper articles and illustrations to promote their successes. Especially effective were hundreds of Japanese wood block prints that depicted war scenes and, in particular, various aspects of battles. While the prints below tend to glorify Japanese actions, some pay tribute to the courage of the Russians.
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The Russian Baltic Fleet
Russia was making an effort to re-supply its forces by rail but the Trans-Siberian Railroad was only a single track, making troop movements difficult. During the siege of Port Arthur, Russia pinned its hopes for victory on its large, though poorly equipped and trained, Baltic fleet that was sent round the world to engage the Japanese. Russia planned to defeat Japan on the seas and cut the island nation off from its army on the mainland. The squadron’s commander, Vice-Admiral Zinovy Petrovich Rozhlestvenskii, knew the ships were in poor condition and the sailors poorly trained, and feared a naval disaster. Reluctantly he and the fleet left the Baltic for an 18,000-mile voyage in early October 1904. By the time the fleet reached the Far East, Port Arthur had fallen so the ships were to continue on to the Russian port of Vladivostok. The Battle of Tsushima In one of the most shocking naval actions in history, the Russians steamed through the Tsushima Strait between Korea and Japan and on May 27-28, under Admiral Togo, the Japanese fleet picked off the Russians in a classic naval maneuver called "crossing the T." Of the thirty-eight ships in the Russian squadron, only two destroyers and the light cruiser Almaz reached Vladivostok. Six other smaller ships reached neutral ports where they were interned. The rest of the fleet was sunk, beached, or surrendered to the Japanese. The Japanese only lost three torpedo boats. Japanese casualties were approximately 100 and about 575 wounded, compared to the approximate 5,000 Russians killed. Vice-Admiral Rozhlestvenskii was wounded and captured on his ship by the Japanese. Japanese Admiral Togo became an instant hero in his country. Images, top row, left to right:
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The Russian fleet attempted to reach Vladivostok by way of the narrow Tsushima Straits where the Japanese were waiting for them.
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